Hyperparathyroidism Hyperparathyroidism Home H Overview Hyperparathyroidism occurs when the parathyroid glands tend to produce high levels of parathyroid hormone, which result in high calcium levels in the blood. It can be primary (due to gland abnormalities) or secondary (often related to chronic kidney disease). Symptoms Kidney stones, bone pain, fatigue, and depression. Diagnosis Blood tests to assess calcium and parathyroid hormone levels, as well as imaging studies to identify gland abnormalities. Treatment Depends on the cause and severity and includes monitoring, medications, and/or surgery to remove overactive glands. Managing hyperparathyroidism helps prevent complications like osteoporosis and kidney damage. Read more about Hyperparathyroidism Filter Alphabet H
Hirsutism Hirsutism Home H Overview Hirsutism refers to excessive growth of hair in women presenting in areas where hair is usually sparse or absent, including the face and chest. Causes Hormonal imbalances, particularly elevated levels of androgens. Conditions like PCOS and certain medications can cause hirsutism. If you notice excessive facial or body hair growth, it may indicate an underlying medical issue. Thus, it is advisable to consult an endocrinologist if you experience significant or sudden hair growth on your face or body persisting for a few months. Diagnosis Evaluation of medical history, symptoms, and hormone levels through blood tests. Treatment Medications to reduce androgen levels or inhibit hair growth as well as cosmetic treatments like laser hair removal or electrolysis. Managing underlying conditions contributing to hirsutism is important for effective treatment and improving the patient’s quality of life. Read more about Hirsutism Filter Alphabet H
Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism Home H Overview Hypothyroidism occurs when the is inadequate production of thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland, leading to a slow metabolism. Common causes Autoimmune diseases like Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, thyroid surgery, or certain medications. Symptoms Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, and depression Diagnosis Blood tests to assess thyroid hormone and TSH levels. Treatment Taking synthetic thyroid hormones (levothyroxine) to restore normal levels. Early diagnosis and treatment can improve symptoms and prevent complications like heart disease and mental health issues, so please contact your doctor if you are feeling tired for no reason or if you have any of the above-mentioned symptoms.If you are taking thyroid hormone medications for hypothyroidism, adhere to your healthcare provider's guidance on the frequency of medical visits. Initially, you may require regular appointments to ensure that you are receiving the correct medication dosage. As time progresses, periodic follow-up check-ups will be necessary for your healthcare provider to oversee your health status and medication effectiveness. Read more about Hypothyroidism Filter Alphabet H
Hypoglycaemia Hypoglycaemia Home H Overview Hypoglycaemia is a condition manifested by abnormally low levels of blood sugar. It frequently occurs in people having diabetes who use insulin or any specific medications. Causes Skipping meals, excessive physical activity, or too much insulin. Symptoms Confusion, shakiness, sweating, and even loss of consciousness in severe cases. Diagnosis Measuring blood sugar levels during an episode. Treatment Rapid consumption of fast-acting carbohydrates like glucose tablets or fruit juice can elevate blood sugar levels. Preventing hypoglycaemia involves regular monitoring, adjusting medications, and eating balanced meals. Education on recognising and treating hypoglycaemia is essential for the management of diabetes in diagnosed individuals.If someone with diabetes or a history of low blood sugar levels experiences severe symptoms or loses consciousness and is not responding to treatments such as drinking juice, eating candy, or taking glucose tablets, it's crucial to seek immediate emergency assistance. Read more about Hypoglycaemia Filter Alphabet H
HbA1c Testing HbA1c Testing Home H Overview HbA1c testing assesses the average levels of blood glucose over the previous 2–3 months, providing a picture of long-term glucose control. It is used to diagnose and monitor diabetes.Elevated HbA1c levels suggest poor blood sugar management and a heightened risk of diabetes-related complications. The test is simple and doesn’t require fasting.Managing HbA1c includes lifestyle changes like healthy eating habits, regular exercise, and medications to control blood sugar levels. Regular HbA1c testing helps patients and healthcare providers adjust treatment plans to achieve and maintain optimal blood sugar control. Read more about HbA1c Testing Filter Alphabet H
Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Home H Overview Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP), also known as extrinsic allergic alveolitis, is an inflammatory lung disease that is caused by repeated inhalation of organic dusts or other antigens to which an individual is sensitised. These antigens can include mould spores, bacteria, animal proteins, or chemicals found in workplaces or home environments. Causes and Risk Factors HP develops when the immune system exhibits an exaggerated response to these inhaled antigens. Initially, exposure leads to an immune reaction in the small airways and air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs, causing inflammation. With repeated exposure over time, chronic inflammation can lead to scarring of the lung tissue. Symptoms Symptoms of HP can vary depending on the frequency and intensity of antigen exposure. Common symptoms include dry cough, shortness of breath, fatigue and weight loss and flu-like symptoms, particularly after exposure to the antigen. Diagnosis Diagnosis involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging-based techniques (e.g., chest X-ray or high-resolution CT scan), pulmonary function tests (PFTs), and sometimes bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and lung biopsy to confirm the presence of inflammation and rule out other lung diseases. Treatment Treatment includes avoiding further exposure to the offending antigen, which is crucial in managing symptoms and preventing disease progression. In some cases, corticosteroids may be prescribed to reduce inflammation. Severe cases may require immunosuppressive therapy, and in rare instances, lung transplantation. Read more about Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Filter Alphabet H
Huntington’s Disease Huntington’s Disease Home H Overview Huntington’s disease is an untreatable, autosomal dominant genetic movement disorder. The disease shows anticipation, meaning subsequent generations are affected at an earlier age. It usually starts at 40–50 years of age. Causes CAG nucleotide repeats expansion in the huntingtin gene HTT Risk factors HereditaryChild has a 50% chance of developing if parent has itIf the child does not develop the disease, it will not be passed onNo family history identified for 1-3% of people with Huntington disease Symptoms Altered body posturesUncontrollable dance-like movements (chorea)Issues with behaviour, sentiments, and thoughtsParkinsonism (associated with juvenile onset Westphal variant)Psychiatric features (personality changes, aggressive behaviour)DystoniaDementiaProgressive weight loss Specialist to approach Neurologist Diagnosis Family history and clinical evaluation of symptomsGenetic testingMRI Brain to determine caudate head atrophy Treatment Symptomatic treatment for chorea and dystoniaAntipsychotics for behaviour managementPrevention of repetitive falls due to chorea Read more about Huntington’s Disease Filter Alphabet H
Horner’s Syndrome Horner’s Syndrome Home H Overview Horner’s syndrome is a rare type of oculosympathetic nerve palsy wherein the sympathetic nerves that control the eyes and face are damaged. Causes Lesion of the primary neuronLesion of the postganglionic neuronTrauma to the brachial plexusBrainstem tumour, stroke, syrinx of the preganglionic neuronCarotid artery ischemiaTumours (e.g. Pancoast) or infection of the lung apexDissecting carotid aneurysmInternal jugular vein catheterizationMiddle cranial fossa neoplasmMigraine Risk factors Trauma to the neck or head, or damage to the nerves or carotid artery during birth or surgeryBenign or malignant tumours in the lungs, thyroid, hypothalamus, or cervical nerves Middle ear infections or other infections Stroke, aneurysm, embolism, or carotid artery dissectionMigraines or cluster headachesFamily historyMultiple sclerosis or other diseases that affect the protective covering of neurons Symptoms Small sized pupilEye retractionDrooping of eye lid or elevation of lower eyelidDecreased sweating over side of face affectedPallor of side of face affected Specialist to approach Neurologist Treatment Treatment of underlying conditionNo specific cure Read more about Horner’s Syndrome Filter Alphabet H
HIV-associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND) HIV-associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND) Home H Overview HAND, previously termed HIV-associated neurological disorders, encompasses a range of neurocognitive impairments linked to HIV infection. Symptoms and diagnosis associated with the different types HIV-associated dementia (HAD)Occurs in advanced stages of HIV and is characterized by difficulties in attention, memory loss, and apathy. Early signs include jerky eye movements, hyperreflexia, and cerebellar dysfunction.DiagnosisInvestigations to rule out alternative conditionsMRI shows atrophy and diffuse white matter changesCSF examination to check non-specific cytochemical abnormalitiesNeuropsychological assessment —to investigate abnormal information processing, psychomotor speed, and recall memoryVascular myelopathy (VM)Typically co-occurs with HIV dementia, presenting as spastic paraparesis without a distinct sensory level. Resembles subacute combined degeneration seen in vitamin B12 deficiency.DiagnosisMRI for imaging changesVitamin B12 and homocysteine levels.HTLV-1 serology to detect co-infectionDistal sensory peripheral neuropathy (DSPN)Appears in late-stage AIDS approximately 25% of patients, with paraesthesia, burning pain, and dysesthesia. Weakness is minimal, ankle reflexes are diminished or absent, pain temperature sensations impaired.DiagnosisAssess vitamin B12 and glucose levelsNerve conduction studies may indicate an axonal neuropathy.Nerve biopsy (rarely needed)Other peripheral nerve syndromes includingMononeuritis multiplex: Associated with HIV vasculitis and CMV.Demyelinating polyneuropathyDiffuse inflammatory lymphocytosis syndrome (DILS): mimics Sjögren’s syndrome, occurs during immunocompetent stages, and is linked to elevated CD8+ cell countsPolyradiculopathyMyopathyPolymyositis: Seen in early HIV stages.Zidovudine-Induced Myopathy: Linked to mitochondrial dysfunction.Opportunistic infectionsCauses, symptoms, and diagnosisToxoplasmosis: Results in multiple ring-enhancing brain lesions, leading to increased intracranial pressure and headaches.Cryptococcal meningitis causes headache, altered mental status, and meningism. MRI reveals meningeal enhancement and hydrocephalous. CSF may reveal pleocytosis.Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML): caused by JC virus reactivation. Symptoms include headache and focal signs. MRI presents white matter abnormalities, while CSF investigations detect presence of JC virus.CMV infection: causes meningoencephalitis, polyradiculopathy. CSF testing confirms presence of CMV virus. Risk factors Older ageA low count of CD4+ cellsAdvanced stage of HIV infectionSubstance useComorbid conditions such as depression and anxietyLow educational levelOther medical conditions such as hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, diabetes, and CVDTraumatic brain injuryAntiretroviral therapy Specialist to approach Neurologist/ Infectious disease specialist Treatment SymptomaticManagement of underlying infections Read more about HIV-associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND) Filter Alphabet H
Herpes Simplex Encephalitis Herpes Simplex Encephalitis Home H Overview Herpes simplex encephalitis refers to a brain parenchyma infection caused due to herpes simplex viral infection. It leads to inflammation and swelling of brain parenchyma and covering of the brain (meninges). Cause Herpes simplex virus infection Risk factors Genetic defects in the Toll-like receptor (TLR3)-interferon (IFN) and IFN-responsive pathwaysChemotherapy and chronic alcoholismHistory of substance abuseA past medical history of sinusitis or psychotic disorders Symptoms FeverHeadacheAltered sensorium- confusion, disorientation, comaNeck stiffnessSeizuresWeakness, nausea, vomitingIf not treated timely and adequately, may prove to be life threatening Specialist to approach Neurologist Diagnosis CSF examination to determine pleocytosisMRI brain to determine contrast enhancement in temporal areas, or vasculitic infarctsEEG to check periodic lateralized discharges.Blood tests for HIV antibodies Treatment Antiviral therapy (acyclovir)Supportive care- management of seizures, fluid replenishment, hydration and calory supplementationICU care may be required Read more about Herpes Simplex Encephalitis Filter Alphabet H