Acne Acne Home A Overview Acne is a prevalent skin condition characterized by clogging of hair follicles with oil and dead skin cells, resulting in the formation of pimples, blackheads, and whiteheads. Types Comedonal acne: These are marked by blackheads and whiteheads.Inflammatory acne: These are marked by papules, pustules, nodules, and cysts. Symptoms PimplesRednessSwellingSometimes pain Causes Hormonal changesExcess oil productionBacterial infectionGenetics Diagnosis Physical examination and medical history. Treatment Topical treatments (retinoids, benzoyl peroxide), oral medications (antibiotics, isotretinoin), and other procedures including chemical peels, laser therapy (Harmony XL Pro), and PRP therapy, based on the severity of the symptoms. Read more about Acne Filter Alphabet A
Amoebic Colitis Amoebic Colitis Home A Overview Amoebic colitis is an intestinal infection caused by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica. It is a type of amoebiasis, a disease primarily affecting the colon, although it can also affect other parts of the body, such as the liver, lungs, and brain. Causes The infection is transmitted via the faecal-oral route, typically through the consumption of food or water contaminated with Entamoeba histolytica cysts. It is common in areas with poor sanitation, particularly in parts of the developing world.Pathogenesis:Ingestion of cysts: The cysts are ingested through contaminated food or water. Once they reach the intestines, they release trophozoites, which are the active form of the parasite.Invasion of the colonic mucosa: The trophozoites invade the mucosal lining of the colon, causing inflammation and ulceration. They can also spread to other organs, especially the liver, leading to abscess formation.Tissue damage: The parasite produces enzymes and other factors that cause tissue destruction, leading to the symptoms of amoebic colitis. Symptoms Diarrhoea (which may be bloody and mucousy)Abdominal pain (cramping or constant)FeverNausea and vomitingWeight lossFatigueIn severe cases, the condition can lead to colonic perforation and sepsis. Diagnosis Stool examination: Identification of Entamoeba histolytica cysts or trophozoites in stool samples.Serological tests: Detection of antibodies or antigens related to the parasite.Endoscopy or colonoscopy: Visual examination of the colon can reveal characteristic ulcers or lesions.Imaging: In cases where there is suspicion of extra-intestinal involvement (like liver abscess), imaging studies (e.g., ultrasound, CT scan) may be used. Treatment Antiprotozoal medications:Metronidazole or Tinidazole: These are the first-line treatments for amoebic colitis, as they effectively kill the trophozoites.Luminal agents (e.g., Paromomycin or Iodoquinol): These are used to treat any remaining cysts in the intestines after the systemic infection has been controlled.Supportive care: Fluid and electrolyte management to prevent dehydration, especially in severe cases with diarrhoea.Surgical intervention: In rare cases where there is perforation, abscess formation, or severe complications, surgery may be required. Prevention Improved sanitation: Access to clean water and proper sanitation can significantly reduce the risk of infection.Handwashing: Regular handwashing, especially after using the bathroom and before handling food.Food and water safety: Avoiding potentially contaminated food or drinking water, especially in areas with poor hygiene. Read more about Amoebic Colitis Filter Alphabet A
Ageing Skin Ageing Skin Home A Overview Ageing skin is characterised by a loss of elasticity, volume, and moisture. Types Intrinsic ageing: This natural aging process leads to thinner, drier skin, fine lines, and a gradual decline in skin quality.Extrinsic ageing: Caused by environmental factors like pollution, poor diet, smoking, and sun exposure, this type of ageing results in coarse wrinkles, reduced elasticity, skin laxity, and a rougher skin texture. Symptoms WrinklesSaggingDrynessAge spots Causes Natural ageing processSun exposureLifestyle factors Diagnosis Comprehensive skin assessment by a dermatologist. Treatment FillersPRP therapyMorpheus8ThreadsHydrating skincare products, based on the cause and severity of the symptoms. Read more about Ageing Skin Filter Alphabet A
Acute Pancreatitis Acute Pancreatitis Home A Overview Acute pancreatitis is a sudden inflammation of the pancreas that can range from mild discomfort to a life-threatening condition. The pancreas is a gland located behind the stomach that produces digestive enzymes and hormones, such as insulin. In acute pancreatitis, these enzymes become activated within the pancreas rather than the small intestine, causing inflammation and damage to the organ. The severity of acute pancreatitis can vary from mild to severe, with potential complications affecting other organs. Causes The most common causes of acute pancreatitis are:Gallstones: They are the most common cause of acute pancreatitis. If a gallstone obstructs the common bile duct or the pancreatic duct, the digestive enzymes in the pancreas can back up, causing inflammation.Alcohol consumption: Heavy alcohol use is another leading cause of acute pancreatitis. Chronic alcohol consumption is a major risk factor, but even a single episode of excessive drinking can trigger an acute attack.Hypertriglyceridemia: High levels of triglycerides (greater than 1000 mg/dL) in the blood can lead to acute pancreatitis. This condition is more commonly seen in individuals with uncontrolled diabetes, obesity, or genetic lipid disorders.Medications: Certain medications can cause acute pancreatitis as a side effect; these include:Diuretics (e.g., thiazides)Statins (cholesterol-lowering drugs)Antibiotics (e.g., metronidazole, tetracyclines)Immunosuppressive drugs (e.g., azathioprine)Infections: Infections, such as mumps, hepatitis, cytomegalovirus (CMV), or parasitic infections (e.g., toxoplasmosis) can trigger acute pancreatitis.Trauma or surgery: Abdominal trauma or recent surgery (especially gallbladder removal or bariatric surgery) can lead to acute pancreatitis.Pancreatic duct obstruction: Blockage of the pancreatic duct due to tumours, cystic fibrosis, or pancreatic duct strictures can lead to inflammation of the pancreas.Genetic factors: Certain inherited conditions, such as cystic fibrosis, familial hypertriglyceridemia, and mutations in the PRSS1 gene (associated with hereditary pancreatitis), can predispose individuals to acute pancreatitis.Other causes: Autoimmune diseases (e.g., autoimmune pancreatitis), endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) procedures, and idiopathic causes (when no cause can be identified) are also contributing factors. Symptoms Key symptoms of acute pancreatitis include:Abdominal pain: The primary symptom of acute pancreatitis is severe abdominal pain, usually located in the upper abdomen. The pain may:Nausea and vomiting: Patients often experience nausea and vomiting, which may accompany the abdominal pain. Vomiting is typically not relieved by eating or drinking.Fever: A mild fever may occur as part of the inflammatory process, though it can be more pronounced if there is an infection or complication.Bloating and distension: Abdominal bloating and distension may occur due to a buildup of gas and fluids in the abdomen.Jaundice: If the pancreatitis is caused by a gallstone obstruction or pancreatic duct obstruction, jaundice may develop.Increased heart rate: A rapid heart rate (tachycardia) is common, especially in severe cases, due to the inflammatory response and fluid loss.Low blood pressure: Hypotension (low blood pressure) may occur as a result of fluid loss from vomiting, fever, or a systemic inflammatory response.Dehydration: Severe vomiting, fever, and the body’s inflammatory response can cause significant fluid loss, leading to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Diagnosis Key diagnostic methods include:Blood tests:Elevated levels of pancreatic enzymes are the hallmark of acute pancreatitis. The key enzymes measured are:Amylase: Levels rise quickly after the onset of pancreatitis but return to normal within 48-72 hours.Lipase: This enzyme remains elevated for a longer period, typically up to 7 days, and is more specific to pancreatitis than amylase.Other markers: White blood cell (WBC) counts and liver enzyme, blood glucose, and creatinine levels may also be elevated.Imaging Studies:Abdominal ultrasound: This is the first imaging test used to check for gallstones, which are a common cause of acute pancreatitis, and to rule out other conditions such as liver disease or bile duct obstruction.CT scan (Computed Tomography): A contrast-enhanced CT scan is often used to evaluate the severity of acute pancreatitis and detect complications such as pseudocysts, necrosis, or infection. It is also useful in identifying complications like pancreatic duct rupture.MRI/MRCP (magnetic resonance imaging): MRI or Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) can help identify bile duct or pancreatic duct obstructions, and assess the severity of inflammation.Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS): EUS can be helpful in identifying gallstones, pancreatic masses, or ductal abnormalities, and is often used when other imaging methods are inconclusive. Treatment Treatment of acute pancreatitis generally involves supportive care, management of complications, and addressing the underlying cause. The specific approach depends on the severity of the condition.Initial supportive care:Fasting: The patient is typically not allowed to eat or drink (NPO, "nothing by mouth") for the first 24-48 hours to rest the pancreas and reduce further irritation.Intravenous (IV) Fluids: Dehydration is common due to vomiting, fever, and third-spacing of fluid. Aggressive fluid resuscitation with IV fluids is essential to maintain blood pressure and organ perfusion.Electrolyte correction: Correcting any electrolyte imbalances, such as hypokalaemia or hypocalcaemia, is crucial for recovery.Pain management: Analgesics, particularly acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), are used to manage mild to moderate pain. Severe pain may require stronger medications such as opioids.Management of the underlying cause:Gallstone pancreatitis: If gallstones are the cause, patients may require endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) to remove the stones or drain bile if there is a bile duct obstruction.Alcohol-induced pancreatitis: The first step is abstinence from alcohol. Patients may also benefit from nutritional support and treatment for any withdrawal symptoms.Hypertriglyceridemia: In cases where high triglyceride levels are the cause, lipid-lowering agents, such as fibrates or statins, are used, and the patient may need plasmapheresis if triglyceride levels are very high.Nutritional support:Once pain and inflammation are controlled, and bowel function returns, oral feeding can be gradually reintroduced. This is typically done with a low-fat diet to minimise stress on the pancreas.In more severe cases, patients may require enteral nutrition (via a feeding tube) if oral intake is not possible.Treating complications:Pseudocysts: If a pancreatic pseudocyst develops and causes symptoms or complications, it may require drainage via endoscopic, percutaneous, or surgical approaches.Infection: Infection of pancreatic necrosis may require antibiotics or drainage procedures.Organ failure: Severe cases of acute pancreatitis can result in multi-organ failure, including kidney failure, respiratory failure, or shock, which requires intensive care.Surgical intervention:In rare cases where complications like infected pancreatic necrosis or perforation occur, surgical intervention may be necessary, including drainage, necrosectomy (removal of dead tissue), or even resection of the pancreas. Prevention While acute pancreatitis may not always be preventable, certain measures can reduce the risk:Avoiding excessive alcohol consumption.Maintaining a healthy diet to control triglyceride and cholesterol levels.Treating underlying conditions like gallstones or hypertriglyceridemia early to prevent recurrence.Regular follow-ups for patients with a history of acute pancreatitis to monitor for complications. Read more about Acute Pancreatitis Filter Alphabet A
Autism Spectrum Disorders Autism Spectrum Disorders Home A Overview Autism spectrum disorders are neurodevelopmental disorders. The core deficit is in social communication and interaction, difficulty in developing and maintaining relationships, restricted and repetitive pattern of behaviour, interest or activities. The individuals may have coexisting behaviour or mood disorders as well as ADHD, and specific learning disorder (SLD). They may have specific and unique skills like artistic drawing, exceptional mathematical ability or musical geniuses. Causes and risk factors The primary cause is unknown. Some factors increase the likelihood of autism:Older parentsSiblings with ADHDDown’s syndromeLow birth weight Types Some common behaviours observed in autism are: Minimal social communication and interactionRepetitive behavioursSleep problems Diagnosis Diagnosis of Autism spectrum disorder include:Screening for developmental delayAssessment of cognitive abilitiesAssessment of language abilitiesObservation Treatment Autism spectrum disorder includes:MedicationsBehavioural interventionPsychological intervention Read more about Autism Spectrum Disorders Filter Alphabet A
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Home A Overview Attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder commonly diagnosed in children, though is also identified in adolescents or adults. It is marked by varying levels of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. Causes and risk factors The exact cause of ADHD remains unclear, though several risk factors contribute to its development, including:GeneticsEnvironmental factorsAlcohol and drug use during pregnancyHead injury Types ADHD is typically classified into three types:InattentiveHyperactive-impulsiveCombined Symptoms Other symptoms of ADHD include:Inattention: Easy distractibility, difficulty in sustaining attention, losing things easily, forgetfulness, and difficulty in following instructionsHyperactivity and impulsivity: Difficulty in waiting for one’s turn, fidgety, difficulty in remaining seated, always on the go, frequently interrupts during conversation, difficulty in age appropriate estimation of risk, difficulty working in groups and restlessness Diagnosis ADHD diagnoses is common in children but infrequently detected for the first time in adolescence or adulthood (ADHD in adults). Diagnosis includes a checklist for rating symptoms and obtaining history from parents/caregivers and teachers. Treatment ADHD can be treated through: Behavioural therapyLifestyle changesMedications. Read more about Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Filter Alphabet A
Anxiety Disorders Anxiety Disorders Home A Overview Anxiety disorders is a category of psychiatric disorders that arise from accumulated emotions such as fear and stress which develop over time. Anxiety disorder is characterised by persistent, and overwhelming anxiety or worrying about everyday situations that lasts over at least 6 months or more. They can be triggered by certain situations or incidents such as debt, death of loved ones, divorce, unemployment, etcetera. Causes Some factors that contribute to the development of anxiety disorders are as follows:GeneticsEnvironmental factorsChanges in brainChemical imbalance Types There are different types of anxiety disorders such asPanic disorderGeneralised anxiety disorderSpecific phobias. Symptoms Anxiety disorders are linked to physical symptoms of anxiety such as:Pounding heartRacing pulseChest discomfortSweatingTrembling or shakingFeeling of loss of controlFeeling giddyLight-headednessChillshot flushes. Diagnosis Diagnosis is based on physical examination, symptoms and observation of behaviour. Blood tests and imaging are used to rule out other physical conditions. Treatment Anxiety disorders treatment involves MedicationsPsychotherapy services. Read more about Anxiety Disorders Filter Alphabet A
Achalasia Cardia Achalasia Cardia Home A Overview Achalasia cardia is a serious disorder affecting the food pipe (oesophagus). It is a rare condition, wherein the lower oesophageal sphincter (LES) is unable to relax properly, a phenomenon that hinders the efficient passage of food and liquids into the stomach. Furthermore, peristalsis (the coordinated contractions of the oesophagus) is also affected, which further impairs the movement of food. This leads to dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), regurgitation, and other symptoms related to poor oesophageal motility. Causes and risk factors Neurological dysfunction: The primary cause of achalasia cardia is the degeneration of specialised nerve cells (ganglion cells) that are responsible for controlling the muscles of the oesophagus and the LES. Without proper nerve function, the LES fails to relax, and the oesophagus loses its ability to move food downward via peristalsis.Genetic factorsAutoimmune responsesViral infections: Certain viral infections, particularly Chagas disease (caused by Trypanosoma cruzi), can lead to achalasia by damaging the nerves in the oesophagus.Other diseases: Achalasia can also occur secondary to other diseases, such as Chagas disease or cancer of the oesophagus, although this is much less common. Symptoms Difficulty in swallowing): even swallowing liquids may become difficult as the disease progresses.Regurgitation of food or liquids, especially when reclining. This might result in coughing or choking, and can sometimes even culminate in aspiration (food or liquid entering the lungs).Aspiration pneumoniaHeartburnChest painWeight loss Diagnosis Barium swallow (Esophagram): This imaging modality involves swallowing a contrast medium (barium) by the patient to visualise the oesophagus. In the barium swallow test, achalasia typically presents a "bird's beak" appearance at the lower oesophageal sphincter (LES), where the oesophagus narrows down owing to the inability of the LES to relax.Oesophageal manometry: This test is the gold standard for diagnosing achalasia; it involves measuring the pressure inside the oesophagus and evaluating the function of the LES. In achalasia, the manometry will reveal a lack of oesophageal peristalsis and incomplete LES relaxation during swallowing.Endoscopy (oesophagogastroduodenoscopy or EGD)Oesophageal pH monitoring: This test involves evaluating the amount of acid reflux into the oesophagus. It is useful to rule out gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or other reflux-related conditions.CT or MRI Treatment Medications:Nitrates or calcium channel blockers: These medications may help relax the lower oesophageal stricture (LES) and improve swallowing. However, their effectiveness is usually limited, and they are often only helpful in mild cases or as a short-term solution(s).Botulinum toxin (Botox): Injections of Botox into the LES can temporarily paralyse the muscle, allowing it to relax and improve swallowing. This treatment is often used in older patients or individuals who are not candidates for surgery, but the effects typically wear off after a few months.Pneumatic dilation: This involves using a balloon to stretch and widen the LES. The procedure is performed under sedation and can offer significant symptom relief in many patients. It is effective for many, but the procedure may need to be repeated, and there is a risk of oesophageal perforation.Surgical treatment:Heller myotomy: This surgical modality involves cutting the muscle of the LES to allow easier passage of food into the stomach. Heller myotomy is a very effective treatment for achalasia and is typically performed laparoscopically (minimally invasive surgery that involves making tiny incisions).Peroral endoscopic myotomy (POEM): This endoscopic procedure (less invasive than Heller myotomy) involves the use of an endoscope to cut the muscle of the LES. POEM is more effective and less invasive than Heller myotomy.Oesophageal stenting: In rare cases, a stent may be placed in the oesophagus to keep it open. This is typically used when other treatments are not effective or if there is a significant narrowing.Lifestyle and dietary changes:Eating smaller portions and consuming soft, easy-to-swallow foods may help manage symptoms.Avoiding lying down immediately after eating and eating slowly may also alleviate regurgitation and discomfort. When to see a doctor Consult a medical professional if you experience dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), chest pain, regurgitation, or unintentional weight loss. Read more about Achalasia Cardia Filter Alphabet A
Acidity & Dyspepsia Acidity & Dyspepsia Home A Overview Acidity and dyspepsia are very common symptoms that occur when the acid from the stomach rises up into the food pipe or if there is inflammation of the stomach lining. These symptoms are commonly linked to diet, lifestyle, or infections, such as H. pylori.They are characterised by burning sensation in the chest or upper abdomen, acidic or sour taste in the mouth (especially on lying down, bloating and upper stomach pain or discomfort), along with tightness in the upper abdomen after eating. Causes Eating spicy, fried, or fatty foodsOvereatingPsychological stressObesityPregnancySmoking or chewing tobaccoCertain conditions such as GERD.Infections, such as H. pylori, which may occur from consuming contaminated water or uncooked food Diagnosis Physical examination of the patientUpper gastrointestinal endoscopy (looking inside the food pipe and stomach using a telescope)Acid measurement test called as pH monitoringBarium swallow tests Treatment Lifestyle changes (including lifestyle assessment, diet modification, weight management, and cessation of substance abuse).Use of prescription antacids.Use of H2 blockers, proton pump inhibitors, and potassium channel blockers to reduce acid production. Prevention Never eat to your fullest capacity. Keep your stomach partly empty.Eat small and frequent meals (ideally every 3-4 hours).Avoid triggers, such as spicy, fatty, refined fast food.Quit smoking, tobacco chewing, and alcohol consumption.Do not lie down immediately after eating, instead walk or sit in a reclining position after a meal. When to seek medical attention If symptoms are frequent or do not improve with simple lifestyle management and over-the-counter antacids, it is advisable to consult a doctor (family physician or gastroenterologist) as it could indicate the presence of stomach/oesophageal inflammation, H. pylori infection, stomach ulcers, or sometimes even early stages of cancer. Read more about Acidity & Dyspepsia Filter Alphabet A
Arthroscopy Arthroscopy Home A Overview Arthroscopy is a minimally invasive procedure, commonly used to diagnose joint disorders and plan treatments accordingly. A small incision is first made at the joint location; through this incision, a narrow tube with a fibre-optic camera is inserted. This enables the surgeon to clearly view the region inside the joint on a high-definition monitor. This technique makes it feasible for orthopaedic doctors to diagnose and treat joint disorders using minimal incisions and small surgical tools. Indications Arthroscopy is deemed useful when X-rays or other imaging tests do not provide conclusive results. It is commonly performed on joints such as the wrist, elbow, shoulder, hip, ankle, knee, and ankle joints and is commonly recommended in one or more of the following cases:When the presence of loose bone fragments is notedWhen cartilages and/or joints are damaged or tornWhen the joint linings are inflamedWhen the presence of scarring within joints is noted Procedure Preoperative preparationPreparation steps may vary depending on the joint being treated, but typically include:Avoiding certain medicationsFasting before the procedureArranging for transportation homeWearing comfortable, loose clothingSurgeryThe procedure generally follows these steps:Changing into a hospital gownReceiving a sedative through intravenous routeAdministering local, regional, or general anaesthesia based on the condition.Positioning the patient for optimal joint accessInjecting sterile fluid into the joint for enhanced visibilityMaking small incisions for the camera and instrumentsIncision closure through stitches or adhesive tapePost-operative careArthroscopy usually lasts around an hour. After the procedure, post-operative care includes:Medications for pain management and inflammation controlR.I.C.E. (rest, ice, compression, elevation)Application of splints, slings, or crutchesPhysical therapy along with rehabilitation exercises Complications Arthroscopy is generally safe, but a few possible complications might include:Tissue or nerve damageInfectionBlood clots Outcomes Recovery often allows for light activities and desk work within a few days, driving in 1–3 weeks, while more strenuous activities like heavy lifting, running, and high-impact sports may be resumed few weeks later. Regular follow-ups are vital to monitor the progress and resolve any concerns. Prevention The most effective preventive measure is maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including the consumption of a balanced, nutritious diet, regular exercise, and weight/obesity management; these can significantly reduce the risk of arthritis, especially in weight-bearing joints. Avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol use also plays a crucial role, as these habits can exacerbate inflammation and contribute to arthritis progression. Promoting awareness and encouraging early intervention are essential steps to improve the quality of life for those at risk. Finally, osteoarthritis care and gout management can help mitigate the exacerbation of symptoms in arthritis patients.If in need, please approach a doctor If you experience joint pain, stiffness, or swelling, it is important to consult a healthcare provider, such as a primary care physician or rheumatologist, who can assess your symptoms and may refer you to specialists for targeted treatment. Read more about Arthroscopy Filter Alphabet A